In his Prolegomena (The Muqaddimah), 'Abd al-Rahman Ibn
Muhammad Ibn Khaldun al-Hadrami of Tunis (A.D. 1332-1406), commonly
known as Ibn Khaldun, laid down the foundations of different fields
of knowledge, in particular the science of civilization (al-'umran).
His significant contributions to economics, however, should
place him in the history of economic thought as a major forerunner,
if not the "father," of economics, a title which has
been given to Adam Smith, whose great works were published some
three hundred and seventy years after Ibn Khaldun's death. Not
only did Ibn Khaldun plant the germinating seeds of classical
economics, whether in production, supply, or cost, but he also
pioneered in consumption, demand, and utility, the cornerstones
of modern economic theory.
Before Ibn Khaldun, Plato and his contemporary Xenophon presented,
probably for the first time In writing, a crude account of the
specialization and division of labor. On a non-theoretical level,
the ancient Egyptians used the techniques of specialization, particularly
in the era of the Eighteenth Dynasty, in order to save time and
to produce more work per hour. Following Plato, Aristotle proposed
a definition of economics and considered the use of money in his
analysis of exchange. His example of the use of a shoe for wear
and for its use in exchange was later presented by Adam Smith
as the value in use and the value in exchange. Another aspect
of economic thought before Ibn Khaldun was that of the Scholastics
and of the Canonites, who proposed placing economics within the
framework of laws based on religious and moral perceptions for
the good of all human beings. Therefore all economic activities
were to be undertaken in accordance with such laws.
Ibn Khaldun was cognizant of these ideas, including the one relating
to religious and moral perceptions. The relationship between moral
and religious principles on one hand and good government on the
other is effectively expounded in his citation and discussion
of Tahir Ibn al-Husayn's (A.D. 775-822) famous letter to his son
'Abdallah, who ruled Khurasan with his descendants until A.D.
872.1 From the rudimentary thoughts of Tahir2
he developed a theory of taxation which has affected modern economic
thought and even economic policies in the United States and elsewhere.
This paper attempts to give Ibn Khaldun his forgotten and long
overdue credit and to place him properly within the history of
economic thought. He was preceded by a variety of economic but
elemental ideas to which he gave substance and depth. Centuries
later these same ideas were developed by the Mercantilists, the
commercial capitalists of the seventeenth century-Sir William
Petty (A.D. 1623-1687), Adam Smith (A.D. 1723-1790), David Ricardo
(A.D. 1772-1823), Thomas R. Malthus (A.D. 1766-1834), Karl Marx
(A.D. 1818-1883), and John Maynard Keynes (A.D. 1883-1946), to
name only a few-and finally by contemporary economic theorists.
Labor Theory of Value, Economics of Labor, Labor
as the Source of Growth and Capital Accumulation
With the exception of Joseph A. Schumpeter, who discovered
Ibn Khaldun's writings only a few months before his death,3
Joseph J. Spengler,4 and Charles Issawi, major Western
economists trace the theory of value to Adam Smith and David Ricardo
because they attempted to find a reasonable explanation for the
paradox of value. According to Adam Smith and as further developed
by David Ricardo, the exchange value of objects is to be equal
to the labor time used in its production. On the basis of this
concept, Karl Marx concluded that "wages of labour must equal
the production of labour"5 and introduced his
revolutionary term surplus value signifying the unjustifiable
reward given to capitalists, who exploit the efforts of the labor
class, or the proletariat. Yet it was Ibn Khaldun, a believer
in the free market economy, who first introduced the labor theory
of value without the extensions of Karl Marx.
According to Ibn Khaldun, labor is the source of value. He gave
a detailed account of his labor theory of value, presenting it
for the first time in history. It is worth noting that Ibn Khaldun
never called it a "theory," but had skillfully presented
it (in volume 2 of Rosenthal translation) in his analysis of labor
and its efforts.6 Ibn Khaldun's contribution was later
picked up by David Hume in his Political Discourses, published
in 1752: "Everything in the world is purchased by labour."7
This quotation was even used by Adam Smith as a footnote. "What
is bought with money or with goods is purchased by labour, as
much as what we acquire by the toil of our body. That money or
those goods indeed save us this toil. They contain the value of
a certain quantity of labour which we exchange for what is supposed
at the time to contain the value of an equal quantity. The value
of any commodity, therefore, to the person who possesses it, and
who means not to use or consume it himself, but to exchange it
for other commodities, is equal to the quantity of labour which
it enables him to purchase or command. Labour, therefore, is the
real measure of the exchangeable value of all commodities."8
If this passage which was published in A.D. 1776 in Adam Smith's
major work, is carefully analyzed, one can find its seeds in Ibn
Khaldun's Prolegomena (The Muqaddimah). According to Ibn
Khaldun, labor is the source of value. It is necessary for all
earnings and capital accumulation. This is obvious in the case
of craft. Even if earning "results from something other than
a craft, the value of the resulting profit and acquired (capital)
must (also) include the value of the labor by which it was obtained.
Without labor, it would not have been acquired."9
Ibn Khaldun divided all earnings into two categories, ribh
(gross earning) and kasb (earning a living). Ribh is
earned when a man works for himself and sells his objects to others;
here the value must include the cost of raw material and natural
resources. Kasb is earned when a man works for himself.
Most translators of Ibn Khaldun have made a common mistake in
their understanding of ribh. Ribh may either mean
a profit or a gross earning, depending upon the context. In this
instance, ribh means gross earning because the cost of
raw material and natural resources are included in the sale price
of an object.
Whether ribh or kasb, all earnings are value realized
from human labor, that is, obtained through human effort. Even
though the value of objects includes the cost of other inputs
of raw material and natural resources, it is through labor and
its efforts that value increases and wealth expands, according
to Ibn Khaldun. With less human effort, a reversal to an opposite
direction may occur. Ibn Khaldun placed a great emphasis on the
role of "extra effort," which later became known as
"marginal productivity," in the prosperity of a society.
His labor effort theory gave a reason for the rise of cities,
which, as his insightful analysis of history indicated, were the
focal points of civilizations.
Whereas labor may be interpreted from Ibn Khaldun's ideas as both
necessary and sufficient conditions for earnings and profit, natural
resources are only necessary. Labor and its effort lead to production,
which is in turn used for an exchange through barter or through
the use of money, that is, gold and silver. The process therefore
creates incomes and profits which a man derives from a craft as
the value of his labor after having deducted the cost of raw material.
Long before David Ricardo published his significant contribution
to the field of economics in 1817, The Principles of Political
Economy and Taxation, Ibn Khaldun gave the original explanation
for the reasons behind the differences in labor earnings. They
may be attributed to differences in skills, size of markets, location,
craftsmanship or occupation, and the extent to which the ruler
and his governors purchase the final product. As a certain type
of labor becomes more precious, that is, if the demand for it
exceeds its available supply, its earnings must rise.
High earnings in one craft attract others to it, a dynamic phenomenon
which will eventually lead to an increase in its available supply
and consequently lower profits. This principle explains Ibn Khaldun's
original and insightful analysis of long-term adjustments within
occupations and between one occupation and another. However, this
point of view was attacked by John Maynard Keynes in his famous
statement that in the long run we are all dead. Nevertheless,
Ibn Khaldun's analysis has not only proved to be historically
correct but has also constituted the core thinking of classical
economists.10
Ibn Khaldun succinctly observed, explained, and analyzed how earnings
in one place may be different from another, even for the same
profession. Earnings of judges, craftsmen, and even beggars, for
example, are directly related to each town's degree of affluence
and standard of living, which in themselves are to be achieved
through the fruits of labor and the crystallization of productive
communities. Adam Smith explained differences in labor earnings
by comparing them in England and in Bengal11
along the same lines of reasoning given by Ibn Khaldun four centuries
earlier as he compared earnings in Fez with those of Tlemcen.12
It was Ibn Khaldun, not Adam Smith, who first presented the contribution
of labor as a means of building up the wealth of a nation, stating
that labor effort, increase in productivity, and exchange of products
in large markets are the main reasons behind a country's wealth
and prosperity. Inversely, a decline in productivity could lead
to the deterioration of an economy and the earnings of its people.
"A large civilization yields large profits [earnings] because
of' the large amount of [available] labor which is the cause of
[profit]."13
It was also Ibn Khaldun, long before Adam Smith, who made a strong
case for a free economy and for freedom of choice.
Among the most oppressive measures, and the ones
most deeply harming society, is the compelling of subjects to
perform forced work unjustly. For labour is a commodity, as we
shall show later, in as much as incomes and profits represent
value of labour of their recipients...nay most men have no source
of income other than their labour. If, therefore, they should
be forced to do work other than that for which they have been
trained, or made to do forced work in their own occupation, they
would lose the fruit of their labour and be deprived of the greater
part, nay of the whole, of their income.14
To maximize both earnings and levels of satisfaction,
a man should be free to perform whatever his gifted talents and
skilled abilities dictate. Through natural talents and acquired
skills, man can freely produce objects of' high quality, and,
often, more units of labor per hour.
Demand, Supply, Prices, and Profits
In addition to his original contribution to the economics
of labor, Ibn Khaldun introduced and ingeniously analyzed the
interplay of several tools of economic analysis, such is demand,
supply, prices, and profits.
Demand for an object is based on the utility of acquiring it and
not necessarily the need for it. Utility is therefore the motive
force behind demand. It creates the incentives for consumer spending
in the marketplace. Ibn Khaldun had therefore planted the first
seed of modern demand theory, which since been developed and expanded
by Thomas Robert Malthus, Alfred Marshall, John Hicks, and others.
As a commodity in demand attracts increased consumer spending,
both the price and the quantity sold are increased. Similarly,
if the demand for a certain craft decreases, its sales fall and
consequently its price is reduced.
Demand for a certain commodity also depends upon the extent to
which it will be purchased by the state. The king and his ruling
class purchase much larger quantities than any single private
individual is capable of purchasing. A craft flourishes when the
state buys its product. With his ingenious analytical mind, Ibn
Khaldun had further discovered the concept known in modern economic
literature as "derived demand." "Crafts improve
and increase when the demand for their products increases."15
Demand for a craftsman is therefore derived from the demand for
his product in the marketplace.
As is commonly known, modern price theory states that cost is
the backbone of supply theory. It was Ibn Khaldun who first examined
analytically the role of the cost of production on supply and
prices. In observing the differences between the price of foodstuffs
produced in fertile land and of that produced in poor soils, he
traced them mainly to the disparity in the cost of production.
[In] the coastal and hilly regions, whose soil is
unfit for agriculture, (inhabitants) were forced to apply themselves
to improving the conditions of those fields and plantations. This
they did by applying valuable work and manure and other costly
materials. All this raised the cost of agricultural production,
which costs they took into account when fixing their price for
selling. And ever since that time Andalusia has been noted for
its high prices ....The position is just the reverse in the land
of the Berbers. Their land is so rich and fertile that they do
not have to incur any expenses in agriculture; hence in that country
foodstuffs are cheap.16
Besides individual and state demand and cost of production,
Ibn Khaldun introduced other factors which affect the price of
goods or services, namely, the degree of affluence and the prosperity
of districts, the degree of concentration of the wealthy, and
the degree of customs duties being levied on middlemen and traders.
The direct functional relationship between income and consumption
as presented by Ibn Khaldun paved the road to the theory of consumption
function as a cornerstone of Keynesian economics.17
Ibn Khaldun also made an original contribution in his concept
of profits. In economic literature, a theory of profit as a reward
for undertaking risk in a future of uncertainties is generally
attributed to Frank Knight, who published his ideas in 1921.18
There is no doubt that Frank Knight substantially advanced a well-established
theory of profit. Nevertheless, it was Ibn Khaldun, not Frank
Knight, who originally planted the seed of this theory: "Commerce
means the buying of merchandise and goods, storing them, and waiting
until fluctuation of the market brings about an increase in the
prices of (these goods). This is called profit (ribh)."19
In another context, Ibn Khaldun stated again the same idea:
"Intelligent and experienced people in the cities know that
it is inauspicious to hoard grain and to wait for high prices,
and that the profit (expected) may be spoiled or lost through
(hoarding)."20 Profit is therefore a reward for
undertaking a risk. In the face of future uncertainties, a risk-bearer
may very well lose instead of gain. Similarly, profits or losses
may accrue as a result of speculation which is carried out by
profit-seekers in the marketplace. To maximize profits, Ibn Khaldun
introduced a gospel for traders, "Buy cheap and sell dear,"21
which has been widely quoted ever since. In his translation of
the Muqaddimah of Ibn Khaldun, Franz Rosenthal stated in
a footnote, "In 1952 a book by Frank V. Fischer appeared,
entitled Buy LowSell High: Guidance for the General Reader
in Sound Investment Methods and Wise Trade Techniques."22
If Ibn Khaldun's gospel is applied to cost analysis, it becomes
obvious that profit may be increased, even for a given price of
a final product, when one reduces the cost of raw material and
other inputs used in production by buying them at a discount or,
in general, at a low price even from distant markets, as he indicated
in his account of benefits of foreign trade. Nevertheless, Ibn
Khaldun concluded that both excessively low prices and excessively
high prices are disruptive to markets. It is therefore advisable
that states not hold prices artificially low through subsidies
or other methods of market intervention. Such policies are economically
disastrous because the low-priced goods will disappear from the
market and there will be no incentive for suppliers to produce
and sell whenever their profits are adversely affected. Ibn Khaldun
also concluded that excessively high prices will not be compatible
with market expansion. As the high-priced goods sell less in the
market, the policy of excessively high pricing becomes counterproductive
and disrupts the flow of goods in markets. Ibn Khaldun had thus
laid down the foundations of ideas which later led to the formulation
of disequilibrium analysis. He also cited several factors affecting
the upward general price level, such as increase in demand, restrictions
of supply, and increase in the cost of production, which includes
a sales tax as one of the components of a total cost. After his
analysis of what stimulates overall demand in it growing
economy, Ibn Khaldun stated the following:
Because of the demand for (luxury articles), they
become customary, and thus come to be necessities. In addition,
all labor becomes precious in the city, and the conveniences become
expensive, because there are many purposes for which then, are
in demand in view of the prevailing luxury and because the government
makes levies on market and business transactions. This is reflected
in the sales prices. Conveniences, foodstuffs, and labor thus
become very expensive. As a result, the expenditures of the inhabitants
increase tremendously in proportion to the civilization
of (the city). A great deal of money is spent. Under these circumstances,
(people) need a great deal of money for expenditures, to
procure the necessities of life for themselves and their families,
as well as all other requirements.21
As to the impact of restricted supply on the price level, Ibn
Khaldun summed it up thus: "When goods are few and rare,
their prices go up."24
By carefully reading the above two passages, it becomes obvious
that Ibn Khaldun discovered what is now known as cost-push and
demand-pull causes of inflationary pressures. In fact, he was
the first philosopher in history who systematically identified
factors affecting either the price of a good or the general price
level.
Macroeconomics, Growth, Taxes, Role of Governments,
and Money
In macroeconomics, Ibn Khaldun laid the foundations
of what John Maynard Keynes called "aggregate effective demand,"
the multiplier effect and the equality of income and expenditure.25
When there is more total demand as population increases, there
is more production, profits, customs, and taxes. The upward
cycle of growth continues as civilization flourishes and a new
wave of total demand is created for the crafts and luxury products.
"The value realized from them increases, and, as a result,
profits are again multiplied in the town. Production there
is thriving even more than before. And so it goes with the second
and third increase."26 People's "wealth,
therefore, increases and their riches grow, The customs and ways
of luxury multiply, and all the various kinds of crafts
are firmly established among them."27 The concept
of the multiplier was later developed and expanded by several
economists, in particular by John Maynard Keynes. However, it
was discovered for the first time in history by Ibn Khaldun.
Modern national income accounts were also developed and expanded
using the equality of income and expenditures. Expenditures of
one citizen are income to others; therefore total expenditures
are equal to total incomes. This equality was first discovered
by Ibn Khaldun. In fact, he used both terms as synonymous to one
another after having established the equality between them.28
"Income and expenditure balance each other in every city.
If the income is large, the expenditure is large, and vice versa.
And if both income and expenditure are large, the inhabitants
become more favourably situated, and the city grows."29
Ibn Khaldun introduced the pioneering theory of growth based on
capital accumulation through man's efforts.
(Man) obtains (some profits) through no efforts of
his own, as, for instance, through rain that makes the fields
thrive, and similar things. However, these things are only contributory.
His own efforts must be combined with them, as will be mentioned.
(His) profits will constitute his livelihood, if they correspond
to his necessities and needs. They will be capital accumulation
it they are greater than (his needs)."30
Ibn Khaldun gave his account of the stages of economic development,
from nomadic to agricultural to more "cooperation in economic
matters" which occur through an expansion of a town to a
city, where demand increases and skilled labor congregates and
expands production both ill quantity and in "refinement."
Economic growth continues so long as there is an extra effort
which creates capital accumulation, which in turn, combined
with effort, leads to more production and the development of crafts
in the cities. As was presented earlier, wealth expands through
labor and its efforts, whereas with less human effort there may
occur a reversal to stagnation, followed by a downward trend in
people's standard of living.
Governments play an important role in growth and in the country's
economy in general through their purchases of goods and services
and through their fiscal policy of taxation and expenditures.
Governments may also provide an environment of incentives for
work and prosperity or, inversely, a system of oppression which
is ultimately self-defeating. Even though Ibn Khaldun regards
governments as inefficient, "not so much calculation"
is carried out by them of what is contemporarily known as cost
and benefit, they still play an important role in the country's
economy through their big purchases. Government expenditures stimulate
the economy by increasing incomes, which are further hiked through
a multiplier effect. However, if the king hoards the amount he
collects in taxes, business slackens and the economic activities
of the state are adversely affected through the multiplier effect.31
In addition to its welfare program for the poor, the widows, the
orphans, and the blind, provided there is no overburden for the
treasury, the government should spend its tax revenue wisely
to improve conditions of its "subjects, to safeguard their
rights and to preserve them from harm."32
Ibn Khaldun was the first major contributor to tax theory
in history. He is the philosopher who shaped the minds of several
rulers throughout history. More recently his impact was evident
on John F. Kennedy and later on Ronald Reagan. "Our true
choice is not between tax reduction on the one hand and avoidance
of large federal deficits on the other. An economy stilled by
restrictive tax rates will never produce enough revenue to balance
the budget, just as it will never produce enough jobs or enough
profits." John F. Kennedy said that back in 1962, when he
was asking for a tax decrease, a cut in tax rates
across the board. But when John Kennedy said those words, he was
echoing the words of Ibn Khaldun, a Muslim philosopher back in
the fourteenth century, who said the following: "At the beginning
of the dynasty taxation yields large revenues from small assessments.
At the end of the dynasty taxation yields small revenue from large
assessments….This is why we had to have the tax program as
well as the budget cuts, because budget cuts, yes, would reduce
government spending."33
According to Ibn Khaldun, tax revenues of the ruling dynasty increase
because of business prosperity, which flourishes with easy, not
excessive taxes. He was therefore the first in history to lay
the foundation of a theory for the optimum rate of taxation, a
theory which has even affected contemporary leading advocates
of supply-side economics such as Arthur Laffer and others. The
well-known Laffer curve is nothing but a graphical presentation
of the theory of taxation developed by Ibn Khaldun in the fourteenth
century.34
"When tax assessments and imposts upon the subjects are low,
the latter have the energy and desire to do things. Cultural enterprises
grow and increase, because the low taxes bring satisfaction. When
cultural enterprises grow, the number of individual imposts and
assessments mount. In consequence, the tax revenue, which is the
sum total of the individual assessments, increases";35
whereas with large tax assessments, incomes and profits are adversely
affected, resulting, in the final analysis, in a decline in tax
revenue. Ibn Khaldun made a strong case against any government
attempt to confiscate or otherwise affect private property. Governments'
arbitrary interferences in man's property result in loss of incentives,
which could eventually lead to a weakening of the state. Expropriation
is self-defeating for any government because it is a form of oppression,
and oppression ruins society.
In macroeconomics Ibn Khaldun also contributed to the theory of
money. According to him, money is not a real form of wealth but
a vehicle through which it can be acquired. He was the first to
present the major functions of money as a measure of value, a
store of value and a "numeraire." "The two mineral
'stones,' gold and silver as the (measure of) value for all capital
accumulations . . . [are] considered treasure and property. Even
if under certain circumstances, other things are acquired, it
only for the purpose of ultimately obtaining [them]. All other
things are subject to market fluctuations from which (gold and
silver) are exempt. They are the basis of profit, property and
treasure."36 The real form of wealth is not money,
however; wealth is rather created or otherwise transformed through
labor in the form of capital accumulation in real terms. It was,
therefore, Ibn Khaldun who first distinguished between money and
real wealth, even though he reali7ed that the latter may he acquired
by the former. Yet money plays a much more efficient role than
barter in business transactions in a society where man exchanges
the fruits of his labor, whether in the form of goods or of services,
with another to satisfy the needs which he cannot fulfill alone
on his own. Money also facilitates the flow of goods from one
market to another, even across the border of countries.
Foreign Trade
Ibn Khaldun also contributed to the field of international economics.
Through his perceptive observations and his analytical mind, he
undoubtedly shed light on the advantages of trade among nations.
Through foreign trade, according to Ibn Khaldun, people's satisfaction,
merchants' profits, and countries' wealth are all increased.
The merchant who knows his business will travel only
with such goods as are generally needed by rich and poor, rulers
and commoners alike. (General need) makes for a large demand for
his goods...it is more advantageous and more profitable for the
merchants' enterprise... (that he will be able to take advantage
of) market fluctuations, if he brings goods from a country
that is far away...merchandise becomes more valuable
when merchants transport it from one country to another.37
The italicized word, valuable, indicates Ibn
Khaldun's perception of the gains of trade. If a good becomes
more valuable by being transported from country A to country B
and still sells at a profit in B after the cost of transportation
and all other costs are taken into account, then it is (1) cheaper
than the same good produced internally, (2) of better quality,
or (3) a totally new product. If the foreign good is cheaper than
that produced internally, foreign trade will serve to economize
labor and other resources by having them diverted from the high-cost
good which cannot face competition to other low-cost products.
The resources which are saved from this process of diversion may
be used to produce other goods or may add another layer of capital
accumulation. Foreign trade may therefore contribute positively
to the country's level of income as well as to its level of growth
and prosperity. If the foreign good is of a better quality than
that produced internally, the imported good will add to the level
of satisfaction of those who purchase it. In the meantime, internal
producers facing the competitive high-quality product must
attempt to improve their production or accept a reduction
in their sales and revenues. There will be a welfare gain in either
case: a rise in the quality of internal products or a diversion
of resources from the production of a high-cost good to a low-cost
good, as in the first case. In the last case, when the imported
good is a totally new product, the welfare gain from foreign trade
may be expressed in terms of an increase in the level of satisfaction
of those who purchase it or in terms of an increase in quantity
or quality of production of other goods if the imported item is
a new tool or a modification of an existing one. Furthermore,
an introduction of a totally new product through foreign trade
may attract internal producers, if it is feasible, to produce
it once they are capable to compete with the foreign product.
Ibn Khaldun was conscious of what was later termed the "opportunity
cost." Applying valuable labor to improving poor soils
means that the labor could have. been better used in the production
of other goods. Resources in general should be put to the best
possible use. Otherwise there will be a cost which will surface
in a loss in value. Foreign trade provides further incentives
in the attempts to optimize the use of labor and other natural
resources.
Ibn Khaldun's originality in his perceptive observations and analysis
of foreign trade deserves proper recognition in the field of international
economics. The subject of gains from trade has been substantially
developed and expanded, in particular, since the publication of
Political Discourses by David Hume in 1752. But the first
original seed of the subject was planted by Ibn Khaldun four centuries
earlier.
Ibn Khaldun and Adam Smith
In spite of Ibn Khaldun's overall contribution to the
field of economics, it is Adam Smith who has been widely called
the "father of economics." Schumpeter's view of Smith's
economics is more critical than admiring.38 "Personally,
I do not share such a view, for I still consider Adam Smith one
of the great philosophers who has significantly contributed to
the field of economics even by having been a mere collector of
previous economic thoughts. He eloquently presented these ideas
in detail in an excellent new form and style. Nevertheless, by
comparison, Ibn Khaldun was far more original than Adam Smith,
in spite of the fact that the former had also restructured and
built upon foundations laid down before him, such as Plato's account
of specialization, Aristotle's analysis of money, and Tahir Ibn
al-Husayn's treatment of government's role. Still, it was Ibn
Khaldun who founded the original ideas in numerous areas
of economic thought.
Despite Ibn Khaldun's contributions, some economic ideas as well
as some economic philosophy of the freedom of choice, as presented
above, were later attributed to Adam Smith without giving due
credit to the original thinker Ibn Khaldun. "Smith's great
economic treatise contains both his 'preaching' of the 'gospel'
of economic liberalism, i.e., economic freedom for all individuals."39
Since there is such a striking similarity in the economic thought
of Ibn Khaldun and of Adam Smith, it must be left to the economic
historian to ascertain direct or indirect links between these
two great thinkers who were four centuries apart. However, I would
like to suggest some possible and likely points of contact. Even
though Adam Smith did not explicitly refer to Ibn Khaldun's contributions,
it may well be argued that there were several channels through
which he may have encountered the latter's pioneering and original
economic thought.
Adam Smith graduated from Glasgow University, where he was influenced
by his teacher Francis Hutcheson, who was in turn affected by
Antony Ashley Cooper,40 known as Lord Shaftesbury in
the late seventeenth century and early eighteenth century, and
other philosophers who were concerned with "liberal enlightenment,"
all of whom may have been directly or indirectly affected by Ibn
Khaldun's thought. After his graduation, Adam Smith devoted six
years to research at Oxford University's library, where he may
have been exposed to Ibn Khaldun's contributions even without
having been aware of the author's name. It was not uncommon in
early times that ideas were circulated, discussed, and delivered
from one generation to another without the name of an author.
Furthermore, ever since the Crusades, which lasted from the eleventh
to the thirteenth centuries, most Western philosophers attempted
to discount the impact of Muslim scholars through a multiplicity
of approaches, which included using Muslim ideas without mentioning
the name of a Muslim author. The protracted war waged by the Crusaders
to capture the Holy Land from the Muslims created a strong antagonistic
feeling, well embedded in the Western mind, from which Western
scholars were not immune and which lasted for centuries, probably
until modern times. Another possible channel through which Adam
Smith may have been directly or indirectly exposed to Ibn Khaldun's
economic thought was through his tour of Europe. During this tour
he encountered Quesnsay, other Physiocrats in Paris, and other
European intellectuals who may have been influenced by Ibn Khaldun
in one way or another.
Adam Smith could also have been exposed to the economic contributions
of Ibn Khaldun through the dominant influence of the Ottoman Empire.
Ever since the Ottoman Empire rose in the fourteenth century-and
vastly extended its boundaries at its peak in the sixteenth century
to include much of southeast Europe, southwest Asia, and northern
Africa-a new bridge was erected linking intellectuals in the Continent
with their counterparts in the vast territories of the empire,
of which Egypt became a part in 1517. It was in Egypt that Ibn
Khaldun spent the latter part of his life revising manuscripts
of his works which he had originally completed in Tunis in November
of 1377. His thoughts were then transmitted from one generation
to another, from one century to another, and from one country
to another. Influenced by Ibn Khaldun's idea that craftsmen and
industrialists play a significant role in a country's growth,
prosperity, and power, Sultan Selim 1, after having successfully
extended his domain of influence over Egypt in 1517, took back
with him from Cairo to Constantinople the best-known artisans
at that time. In modern terminology, this was a case of a "transfer
of technology."
The impact of Ibn Khaldun was extensive and profound, not only
in the minds of some rulers and statesmen, but also among intellectuals
and educators long before his books were even translated into
other languages, In response to great interest in his works, his
books were finally translated to the Turkish language in 1730,41
exactly forty-six years before the publication of Adam Smith's
The Wealth of Nations.
Concluding Remarks
Even if Adam Smith was not directly exposed to Ibn
Khaldun's economic thoughts, the fact remains that they were the
original seeds of classical economics and even modern economic
theory. Ibn Khaldun had not only been well established as the
father of the field of sociology, but he had also been well recognized
in the field of history, as the following passage from Arnold
Toynbee indicates:
In his chosen field of intellectual activity [Ibn
Khaldun] appears to have been inspired by no predecessors ...
and yet, in the Prolegomena ... to his Universal History he
has conceived and formulated a philosophy of history which is
undoubtedly the greatest work of its kind that has yet been created
by any mind in any time or place.42
Through his great sense and knowledge of history, together with
his microscopic observations of men, times, and places, Ibn Khaldun
used an insightful empirical investigation to analyze and produce
original economic thought. He left a wealth of contributions for
the first time in history in the field of economics. He clearly
demonstrated breadth and depth in his coverage of value and its
relationship to labor; his analysis of his theory of capital accumulation
and its relationship to the rise and fall of dynasties; his perceptions
of the dynamics of demand, supply, prices, and profits; his treatment
of the subjects of money and the role of governments; his remarkable
theory of taxation, and other economic subjects. His unprecedented
contributions to the overall field of economics should make him,
Ibn Khaldun, the father of economics.
Notes
1. Charles Issawi, An Arab Philosophy of History, Selections from the Prolegomena of Ibn Khaldun of Tunis (1332-1406) (London: John Murray, 1950), p. 80.
2. Ibid., p. 89. The letter appears in the third chapter, section 50, of the Prolegomena. See Ibn Khaldun, The Muqaddimah, an Introduction to History, tr. by Franz Rosenthal, 3 vols., 2nd ed. (Published for the Bollingen Foundation by Princeton University Press, 1967); hereafter, The Muqaddimah.
3. Joseph A. Schumpeter, History of Economic Analysis, edited from manuscript by Elizabeth B. Schumpeter and published after his death (New York: Oxford University Press, 1954), pp. 136, 788.
4. Joseph J. Spengler, "Economic Thought in Islam: Ibn Khaldun," Comparative Studies in Society and History, vol. 6, no. 3 (April 1964).
5. Karl Marx, Zur Kritik der Politischen Ökonomie, p. 45, as quoted in Erik Roll, A History of Economic Thought, 4th ed. (London: Faber and Faber, 1978), p. 266.
6. The Muqaddimah, 2:311ff.
7. David Hume, Political Discourses (Edinburg: Printed by R. Fleming for
A. Kincaid, 1752), p. 12.
8. Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, ed. by Edwin Cannan (New York: Random House, 1937), p. 30.
9. The Muqaddimah, 2:313.
10. Iohn Maynard Kevnes, General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money, (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1936), pp. 4-22.
11. Adam Smith, An Inquiry, pp. 67-73.
12. The Muqaddimah, 2:273-274.
13. Ibid., p. 282.
14. Ibn Khaldun, An Arab Philosophy of History, (Issawi's translation), p. 85.
15. Ibid., p. 72.
16. Ibid., pp. 73-74.
17. Cf. Milton Friedman, A Theory of Consumption Function (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1957).
1 8. Frank H. Knight, Risk, Uncertainty, and Profit (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1921).
19. The Muqaddimah, 2:340.
20. Ibid., 2:339.
21. Ibid., 2:337.
22. Ibid., 2:337 (see footnote 52).
23. Ibid., 2:279-280.
24. Ibid., 2:338.
25. Keynes, General Theory, pp. 23-34, 113-131, 52-61.
26. 7he Muqaddimah, 2:273.
27. Ibid., 2:297.
28. Ibid., 2:274.
29. Ibid., 2:275.
30. Ibid., 2:311-12.
31. The Muqaddimah, 2:92.
32. Ibn Khaldun was mostly influenced in government expenditures by the letter of Tahir Ibn al-Husayn. See Issawi, Arab Philosophy, p. 89. See also The Muqaddimah, 2:140-141.
33. President Reagan quoted Ibn Khaldun twice, on September 2, 1981, and on October 1, the same year. See Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States, Ronald Reagan (Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1981), pp. 745, 871.
34. Arthur B. Laffer and Marc A. Miles, International Economics in an Integrated World (New York and London: Scott, Foresman and Co., 1982), pp. 157-158.
35. The Muqaddimah, 2:89-90.
36. Ibid., 2:313.
37. Ibid., 2:337-338.
38. Joseph A. Schumpeter, History. pp. 185-94, 474.
39. Overton H. Taylor, A History of Economic Thought (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1960), p. 78.
40. Antony Ashley Cooper (3rd Earl of Shaftesbury), Characteristics of Men, Manners, Opinions and Times, vol. 2, Inquiry Concerning Virtue and Merit, 6th ed. (London: J. Purser, 1737).